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The cell bodies of NPY-ir cells were found in the visual nuclei of the brain. It will be interesting in future experiments to examine the relationship and regulation of NPY and visual nuclei. The NPY-ir signal presents itself as a powerful signal transduction protein, regulating sensory systems of the brain. Having NPY-ir in the brain gives a large part to the NPY-containing neurons as an essential element in vision. The expression of NPY in the visual areas of the brain has been seen in mammals, birds, and reptiles. In birds, studies have focused on mRNA expression, but there have been very few cross-species studies on the existence of NPY expression in the brain using immunohistochemistry. Nonetheless, NPY has been linked to a variety of physiological behaviors, including controls over energy balance, cardiac function, embryonic development, response to stress, learning, and memory. Within the chick brain, NPY has been found in the visual thalamofugal neurons, hippocampus, hyperpallium apicale, torus semicircularis, and nucleus of the lateral lemniscus.
In the brain of a Spotted Munia, NPY-containing cells were found in visual nuclei. These cell bodies and fibers are present throughout the year. The presence of NPY suggests that it may be vital in the development of the visual system. The mechanism of its signal transduction will be further investigated; however, this study is an important first step in insight into the role of this signaling peptide in the visual brain of Spotted Munia. NPY has also been seen in the kidney, clavicle, and ovary of birds. However, NPY has also been shown to be present in the visual system of many bird species. NPY co-localizes with several other visual-related peptides such as the avian homolog of mammalian melanopsin, HOG, and VA opsins in the zona nuclearis and retina of the retina. Their co-localization in photoreceptors and visual nuclei suggests that NPY may be involved in vision and circadian rhythms. It appears to be an important modulator of brain function and is seen in a variety of birds throughout the world. d2c66b5586